1. What is a race? How many races did K. Linnaeus identify? What races are distinguished by modern scientists?
A race is a historically formed group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as traditions and customs. K. Linnaeus identified four races: American, European, Asian and African. At present, most scientists distinguish three large races and several dozen small ones. Large races - equatorial (Australian-Negroid), Eurasian (Caucasoid) and Asian-American (Mongoloid).
2. What distinguishes representatives of the equatorial race?
Representatives of the equatorial race (Negroid) are characterized by dark skin, wavy or curly hair, a wide flattened nose with large nostrils, thick lips, dark eye color, and an average degree of hairline development.
3. Where do representatives of the Eurasian race live?
The area of distribution of the Eurasian race (Caucasoid) - Europe, part of Asia, North Africa, America.
4. What is the difference between representatives of the Eurasian race?
Its representatives are characterized by light, sometimes swarthy skin, straight, sometimes wavy soft hair, a long nose, thin lips, usually well-developed facial hair (moustache, beard), eye color from light blue to black.
5. What race are American Indians?
To the Mongoloid or Asian-American race
6. Give examples of signs of a particular race, which, apparently, are adaptive in nature.
Inhabitants of tropical countries exposed to ultraviolet radiation, have dark skin color containing the pigment melanin that protects the body, and lush curly hair that creates a heat-insulating layer - these are people belonging to the Negroid race. People of the Mongoloid race, living in open steppes with dry hot winds, have narrowed palpebral fissures. People of cold natural zones - the Caucasian race - have a narrow and longer nose than representatives of other races, because. when cold air is inhaled, it is necessary to warm up in the nasal passages.
7. Try to describe the mechanism of race formation and present it in the form of a diagram. What other points of view on the mechanism of race formation exist in the modern scientific world?
Races appeared as a result of the settlement and geographical isolation of the ancestors of modern people in different natural and climatic conditions. The first division of a single African branch into two (Negroid and Caucasoid-Mongoloid) occurred about 40-100 thousand years ago at the stage of paleanthropus. The second was the division of the Caucasoid-Mongoloid branch into the western (Caucasoid) and eastern (Mongoloid), which corresponds to the time of the settlement of new territories by primitive people. Migration led to the emergence of a new isolated population, characterized by significant genotypic formation. Accidental characters in such a population, brought by a few members - the founders of the race, were preserved as a result of closely related crossing and became the characters of the whole race. Natural selection preserved and distributed in the population adaptive traits that increase the viability of individuals. Genetic drift in small human populations fixed neutral traits that did not increase or decrease the survival rate of offspring under given conditions.
Ideas about the origin of races and the primary centers of race formation are reflected in several hypotheses. In accordance with the hypothesis of polycentrism, authored by F. Weidenreich (1947), there were four centers of race formation - in Europe or Asia Minor, in Africa south of the Sahara, in East Asia, in Southeast Asia and on the Greater Sunda Islands. In Europe or Western Asia, a focus of racial formation developed, where Caucasoids arose on the basis of European and Western Asian Neanderthals. In Africa, African Neanderthals formed Negroids, in East Asia the Sinanthropes gave rise to the Mongoloids, and in Southeast Asia and the Greater Sunda Islands, the development of Pithecanthropes and Javanese Neanderthals led to the formation of Australoids. Consequently, Caucasoids, Negroids, Mongoloids and Australoids have their own centers of racial formation. However, this hypothesis is objectionable.
In accordance with the hypothesis of monocentrism (Ya.Ya. Roginsky, 1949), which is based on the recognition of a common origin, social and mental development, as well as the same level of physical and mental development of all races, the latter arose from one ancestor, in one territory. But the latter was measured in many thousands of square kilometers. It is assumed that the formation of races took place in the territories of the Eastern Mediterranean, Western Asia, and possibly South Asia.
8. How many species are represented by humanity? Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens.
At the moment, humanity is represented by one species - Homo sapiens. The unity of all races is confirmed by the presence of common species characteristics, the fertility of offspring in mixed marriages, the similarity of the changes currently observed in representatives of different races and manifested in a decrease in the overall massiveness of the skeleton and acceleration of the physical development of the organism.
9. What is the theory of racism? Is there a biological basis for it? Give arguments against racism.
Racism is a theory based on an anti-scientific statement about the inequality of races, a reactionary theory and a policy of domination of “higher”, “full-fledged” races over “lower”, “inferior” ones.
There is no biological justification for this theory, since all races are equal and belong to the same species - Homo sapiens, there are no fundamental differences between them in the ability to learn, creative and work. Differences in the level of development of culture and technology of peoples of different races depend on socio-economic conditions.
10. In your opinion, will the appearance of a representative of the equatorial race change if he lives in Siberia?
No, the appearance will not change, because the appearance features are inherent in us pheno- and genotypically at birth and depend on the races of our parents and their combination, and not on the habitat at a given time.
Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism. and got the best answer
Answer from Igor Zolotarev[guru]
so no one has proved, and some even vice versa. I will try to explain: if you cross a donkey with a horse, you get a mule that is incapable of reproduction, a rabbit and a hare will not give offspring at all, and you can still give a number of examples, but the point, I think, is clear. Negroids, Caucasians, Asians, when mixing races, give quite viable offspring capable of reproduction, and there are enough fools, lazy people in all races. although I personally don’t like blacks or Asians much.
Answer from Marina Karpukhina (Masko)[guru]
The failure of racism is presumed. It is the racists who must prove their position.
Answer from Alex[guru]
Homo sapiens, as a biological species, arose about 200 thousand years ago in Africa.
The division into races began about 40 thousand years ago and is associated with the colonization of new territories by humans.
Australian Aborigines, Bushmen and Indians branched off from the common trunk a little earlier and can be considered independent small races.
All races belong to the same species and are biologically and intellectually equivalent.
It is possible to predict a tendency to smooth out interracial differences due to the ever-increasing panmixia in human society.
Answer from Leonid Dolinskiy[guru]
Einstein, Mendeleev, Martin Luther King, Chaplin, Kurosawa, Dante... What is there to explain?
Answer from Yörgey[active]
Of course, I’m not a racist, but I can say that people live in different climatic zones, and this greatly affects mental abilities, and not necessarily in the whole world, just take our country
Answer from Bobruisky Sergey[guru]
All people are brothers! It's just that at some stage of evolution, some races went along a progressive path of development, others - along a regressive one. And there is nothing offensive in stating this fact.
And the fact that the fact itself is undeniable is an objective reality.
After all, no one argues that all the achievements of mankind in the field of science, culture and technology are the merit of the white race. That the bloodiest bacchanalia of our time is the merit of adherents of the radical branch of Islam. That in Africa you can’t even force anyone to work, and that the most efficient and enterprising people are representatives of the white race, and not black and yellow. I think we will not go down to examples? Again, not to offend anyone...
Answer from Ddddddd[active]
1. Lack of genetic isolation
2. The existence of intermediate races
3. Morpho-functional similarity among representatives of different races
4. The same level of development
Answer from 2 answers[guru]
Hello! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism.
Biology. General biology. Grade 11. Basic level Sivoglazov Vladislav Ivanovich
20. Human races
20. Human races
Remember!
What races of man do you know?
What is a nation?
All modern humanity belongs to the same species Homo sapiens (reasonable man), within which there are large systematic divisions - race. Each race is characterized by a set of hereditary characteristics, such as the color of the skin, hair, eyes, shape of the nose and lips, height, structural features of the skull, etc. Not all morphological features of a person are racial, for example, the development of muscles and body fat often depend on individual characteristics.
Big races. Usually there are three big races: Eurasian (Caucasian), Asian-American (Mongoloid) and Australo-Negroid (Equatorial) (Fig. 64). Large races are divided into races of the second and third order, the so-called small races. Sometimes Australoids and American Indians are separated into separate large races.
Rice. 64. Representatives of the Mongoloid, Equatorial and Caucasoid races
Caucasian race. Members of this race are mostly fair-skinned, with soft straight or wavy, often blond hair. Most Caucasians have thin lips, a narrow protruding nose, as a rule, a strongly protruding chin. Men usually grow beards and mustaches well. Within the Caucasoid race, there is a very large variability in hair and eye color, so this large race is divided into three large parts: light-colored northern, dark-colored southern and Central European with an intermediate type of pigmentation. Now Caucasians live on all continents, but initially they formed in Europe and Western Asia.
Mongoloid race. Typical representatives of this race have dark, yellowish skin, dark brown eyes, coarse, straight, dark hair. In men, the hairline on the body is very poorly developed, the beard and mustache, as a rule, do not grow. The face is rather flat, the cheekbones are wide, the chin protrudes slightly forward. For most Mongoloids, a highly developed and peculiarly located fold of the upper eyelid (epicanthus) is very characteristic, which covers the inner corner of the eye, thereby causing a somewhat oblique position of the palpebral fissure. At present this race predominates in Asia.
equatorial race. Characteristic features of Negroids are black curly hair, very dark skin and brown eyes. The beard and mustache, like those of the Mongoloids, usually grow weakly. The nose is rather flat, slightly protruding, with wide wings. Most of the representatives have thick lips and protruding jaws of the skull. The most striking signs of this race are expressed among the Sudanese Negroes.
Race and nation. Races are biological formations, but there are human communities based on other principles, to which people often attach more importance. It is necessary to clearly distinguish between the concepts of "race" and "nation". National differences are formed on the basis of economic, political, religious and other factors. For a nation, self-consciousness and cultural heritage is important, and not genetic inheritance, as for a race. The concepts of race and nation do not coincide, therefore it is strictly forbidden to use such combinations as “Japanese race”, “French race”, “Polish race”, etc.
Similarly, there is no connection between race and linguistic community. For example, peoples who speak Turkic languages belong to Caucasians (Turks and Azerbaijanis), Mongoloids (Yakuts), and mixed racial types (Uzbeks, Turkmens). For a person of any race, the native language will be the one in whose environment he grew up.
Origin of races. Among scientists there is no consensus on the time of formation of modern races. It is known that already among neoanthropes there was a wide variety of physical types. About 40 thousand years ago, the rapid settlement of neoanthropes around the globe began. Apparently, as a result of these migrations, individual populations of people found themselves in different natural and climatic conditions. Geographical isolation contributed to the fixation in populations of those traits that had an adaptive value and allowed the population to adapt to local conditions as much as possible.
The dark skin of Negroids, for example, absorbs ultraviolet rays, so it protects well from the rays of the tropical sun. Curly hair forms an air layer around the head that protects against overheating. The narrow palpebral fissure and epicanthus protect the eyes of the Mongoloids from dust carried by the wind in the steppes, or from snowstorms and bright rays reflected from snow-covered spaces in the north. The light skin of Caucasians forms vitamin D as a result of exposure to ultraviolet rays, thereby protecting the body from rickets, and the large size of the nose of residents of high mountain regions is important when breathing cold rarefied air.
Over time, the intensity of the action of biological factors of evolution decreased, social relationships were formed, and not one of the races reached the level of a species in its development. As society developed, racial characteristics lost their adaptive significance, for example, differences in thermoregulation among representatives of the Negroid and Caucasian races become insignificant if a person lives in a house, wears clothes, uses air conditioners and heaters. For a modern person, the determining factor is not the color of the skin and the shape of the eyes, but the ability to realize oneself as a person, the opportunity to develop and show one's intellectual qualities.
Species unity of mankind. All human races are equal biologically and psychologically. The signs by which we differ from each other do not have a fundamental species value and do not represent a biological value for human existence in any environment. Therefore, from a biological point of view, these differences by no means allow us to speak of the general superiority or inferiority of one or another race.
In the composition of any human race, one can find more typical and less typical representatives of it. Since absolutely identical people in the human population do not exist, the assertion of the so-called "pure races" has no basis. In the same way, it makes no sense to talk about "inferior" and "superior" races, because under equal conditions, representatives of any race are able to achieve the same success. Even Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay proved that there are no fundamental differences in the structure of the brain of the Papuans of New Guinea, Australian Aborigines and Europeans.
The disappearance of class and religious barriers, the freedom of movement of people throughout the globe increase the number of mixed marriages, which leads to a mixture of racial characteristics and an increase in the genetic diversity of mankind. For example, in our country now more than 45 million people belong to the transitional Caucasoid-Mongoloid type. The mixing of races speaks of the species unity of mankind. The species community of mankind is one of the proofs of the unity of the origin of human races, since in the case of origin from different animal species, human races would at present be at least different species.
The great genetic diversity of mankind is a guarantee of prosperity and a guarantee of its further progress. It is the diversity of gene pools that ensures the survival of communities, and social evolution creates optimal opportunities for revealing the individual abilities of each person.
Famous researchers A. Jacard and R. Ward wrote: “... the strength of our species is not so much in favorable alleles, gifted individuals or specific achievements of social systems, but in the diversity of people and their genes ... It is necessary to convince each person and each group that another person is rich to the extent that it differs from them…”
Review questions and assignments
1. What are the major races within the Homo sapiens species?
2. What mechanisms underlie the formation of human races?
3. Give evidence of the unity of the origin of the races.
4. Why in the process of evolution none of the races has reached the level of the species in its development?
5. What are the differences between race and nation?
Think! Execute!
1. Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism.
2. In your opinion, will racial signs be strengthened or smoothed out in the future human society? Justify your opinion.
3. How can one imagine the future development of man? Write an essay on this topic.
4. Compare the concepts of "race", "nation", "linguistic community". What are their similarities and differences? Which of these three categories is more meaningful to you personally? Explain your point of view.
5. In the "round table" mode, discuss the problem of interracial contradictions that currently exist in a number of states. Express your opinion on this issue. What measures, in your opinion, can mitigate racial hostility and normalize human relations in modern society?
6. Prepare a presentation or essay on the topic "Modern racism as a global problem."
7. Take part in the organization of the school exhibition "I am a citizen of planet Earth."
Work with computer
Refer to the electronic application. Study the material and complete the assignments.
Your future profession
1. People of what professions contribute to the development of the synthetic theory of evolution? Choose one of these professions that you are most interested in and prepare a short (no more than 7-10 sentences) message about it.
2. Find out what the science of paleobotany studies. How does the work of specialists in this field relate to the topic of this chapter?
3. Prove that basic knowledge about evolution is necessary not only for biologists, but also for specialists in other areas of the natural sciences.
This text is an introductory piece. From the book Naughty Child of the Biosphere [Conversations on Human Behavior in the Company of Birds, Beasts and Children] author Dolnik Viktor RafaelevichRaces of man In the most visible form, the action of selection manifested itself at the last stage of human evolution - in the formation of races. Outwardly, representatives of some races differ greatly, more strongly than many species. But the genetic basis for these differences is small. If taken for
From the book Races and Peoples [Gene, Mutation and Human Evolution] author Asimov IsaacChapter 10 Present and Future Races What to Say About Racism In Chapter 9, we listed six races that differ from each other in gene frequency and blood type. Among these races there are also differences in the frequencies of other genes. We are sure of all this. However, the question arises: what
From the book Anthropological Detective. Gods, Humans, Monkeys... [Illustrated] author Belov Alexander IvanovichGIANTS AND RACES Ethnographers, historians and anthropologists who study the tribes living on the Pacific Islands note the same way of life, culture, similar beliefs. Darwin's co-author on his theory, among other things, is also a mystic and spiritualist, A. R. Wallace, many
From the book The Human Race author Barnett AnthonyRaces It is customary to subdivide the human species into three main groups, differing mainly in the shape of the hair. The first group is the Negroids, who have a spiral shape of hair and a wide nose in the wings. This includes Africans who speak Bantu languages,
From the book Forbidden Archeology the author Cremo Michel A From the book Biology [A complete guide to preparing for the exam] author Lerner Georgy Isaakovich From the book We and Her Majesty DNA author Polkanov Fedor MikhailovichRaces and genes There is no race problem for a geneticist. Differences between races are only in genes. Here is the inheritance scheme for skin color. The difference is in the two gene pairs. In white people, these two genes are represented by "light" variants, in blacks - "dark". As a result
From the book A Treatise on Love as the Creepy Bore Understands It (4th edition) author Protopopov AnatolyAbout our primitive “I”, or in general terms about human instincts There are two “I”s in me - two poles of the planet Two different people, two enemies When one aspires to ballets The other aspires directly to the races ... V. Vysotsky to the order of primates, species HOMO
From the book Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] author Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich From the book of Race. Peoples. Intelligence [Who is smarter] by Lynn Richard5. Are there races? From the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, anthropologists, biologists, and sociologists have all recognized that the human race consists of a series of biologically distinct races. So, in the 1920s. British anthropologist Sir Arthur Keith wrote: "Human types
We are all different: we differ from each other in eye color, hair, skin tones, height, body weight, facial features. All of these are individual differences. But there are signs that distinguish entire communities of people - races. A race is a historically formed group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as traditions and customs.
The question of the origin and classification of races has a long history. The first attempt to describe the human races was made in the 17th century. French Bernier. Later, K. Linnaeus singled out four races: American, European, Asian and African.
At present, most scientists distinguish three large races and several dozen small ones. Large races - equatorial (Australian-Negroid), Eurasian (Caucasoid) and Asian-American (Mongoloid).
Representatives of the equatorial race live mainly in the tropical regions of the Old World. They are characterized by dark skin, wavy or curly hair, a wide flattened nose with large nostrils, and thick lips.
The area of distribution of the Eurasian race is Europe, part of Asia, North Africa, America. Its representatives are characterized by light, sometimes swarthy skin, straight, sometimes wavy soft hair, a long nose, thin lips, and usually well-developed facial hair (mustache, beard).
The Asian-American race is common in America, Central and East Asia. Representatives of this race have straight, black, coarse hair, and mustaches and beards grow weakly. The skin is more dark than fair. The nose of the Mongols is of medium width, protrudes little, while the nose of the American Indians is long, strongly protruding. The most characteristic features of this race are a broad face, protruding cheekbones, a narrow palpebral fissure, lips of medium thickness, a fold of skin at the inner corner of the eye, formed by the skin of the upper eyelid (epicanthus).
However, even within the same race there are groups of people who differ from each other. For example, a Malay does not outwardly look too much like a Buryat or an Evenk. The Negroid Pygmies of the Congo River are different from the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert. Caucasoids of Northern Europe (Norwegians, Swedes) - light-eyed, fair-haired, fair-skinned - bear little resemblance to southerners, mostly brown-eyed and dark-skinned. Therefore, scientists distinguish several dozen smaller races - the second and third order.
Currently, people are actively moving around the world, moving from place to place. For example, Caucasians live on all continents. Representatives of different races intermarry. Scientists believe that in Russia at present 45 million people belong to the transitional Caucasoid-Mongolian type.
Races have been around for a very long time. The first division into two large trunks, the Mongoloid and the Caucasoid-Negroid races, apparently occurred 90-92 thousand years ago. It is believed that the separation of Caucasians and Negroids occurred 50 thousand years ago.
Scientists are still arguing about the mechanism of formation of races. Many characteristics of races are clearly adaptive in nature. So, the dark skin of Negroids better protects them from ultraviolet rays than the light skin of Caucasians. Curly hair is a good heat insulator in the sun. However, the final role of these traits remains unproven, since representatives of other races currently live in the same conditions.
An important factor in the formation of races could be their isolation. It is easy to imagine that in some groups of people living in isolation from the rest of the world, some new signs arose - the shape of the nose, lips, etc. People - carriers of this sign married only within their group. Their offspring also intermarried within this group. Over time, the new sign became the property of all members of this group.
Despite the differences between races, all modern humanity is represented by one species - Homo sapiens. This is confirmed primarily by the fact that fertile offspring are born among representatives of different races entering into marriage.
For a long time, some scientists (and some still) directly linked the biological characteristics of representatives of different races with the level of their culture, tried to compare peoples at different stages of development, people of different social status. These errors formed the basis of the theory of racism. Its supporters asserted that there are higher and lower races, and by this they justified the domination of some peoples over others.
Test your knowledge
- What is a race? How many races did K. Linnaeus identify?
- What races are distinguished by modern scientists?
- What distinguishes representatives of the equatorial race?
- Where do representatives of the Eurasian race live?
- Representatives of what race have a well-developed epicanthus?
- What is the difference between representatives of the Eurasian race?
- What race are American Indians?
- Try to describe the mechanism of race formation.
- How many types of humanity are represented?
Think
Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens
A race is a historically formed group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as customs and traditions. Currently, there are three large races: equatorial, Eurasian, Asian-American. All races make up one species - Homo sapiens.
Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens.
WORK WITH COMPUTER
Please refer to the disk. Study the material of the lesson and complete the suggested tasks.
http://www.africana.ru/science/news/030525_metis. htm (Every fifth person is mestizo)
A race is a historically established group of people united by a common origin, territory of residence, common morphological and physiological hereditary characteristics, as well as customs and traditions. At present, three large races are distinguished: equatorial, Eurasian, Asian-American. All races make up one species - Homo sapiens.
HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY
Man has always sought to know his body. The origins of anatomy go back to prehistoric times. Rock paintings show that primitive hunters already knew about the location of vital organs. and them meaning for the body.
Information about the structure of the heart, lungs, kidneys and other organs is contained in ancient books that have come down to us: the Chinese "Neijing" (XI-VII centuries BC e.), the Hindu "Ayur-Veda" (IX-111 centuries BC).
Among the first known history of scientists, one should first of all name the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates(460-377 BC). He formulated the doctrine of four types of physique and temperament. In his works, he summarized all the scattered information about the structure of the human body obtained by his predecessors.
in the countries of the East. However, the Muslim religion, like the Christian one, forbade the opening of corpses, so anatomy was studied from the books of Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen.
Scientist and doctor Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna)(980-1037) wrote the encyclopedic work "The Canon of Medicine", which contained a lot of medical information of that time. One of the chapters of this work is devoted to human anatomy. It gives a general
Another famous scientist - Greek Aristotle(384-322 BC) gave the name to the main blood vessel - "aorta", from methyl common features in the structure of man and animals. Aristotle claimed that blood is formed in the liver and from there it goes to the heart - the source of feelings, where it warms up and flows through the veins to all organs of the body.
ancient roman doctor Claudius Galen(131-201) was the first to become interested in the functions of organs. Because of the then existing ban on autopsy of human corpses, Galen studied human anatomy, dissecting animals - pigs, dogs, sheep, monkeys: he was sure of the similarity in the structure of the bodies of animals and humans. For fourteen centuries his work was the main source of anatomical and medical knowledge.
In the era of early feudalism (5th-10th centuries), the dominance of the church hindered the development of the natural sciences in European countries. At the same time, these sciences developed rapidly
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a description of the structure and functions of the human body, provides information about the bones, joints, muscles, tendons, the structure of the teeth, skull and nerves.
At the beginning of the 11th millennium, the rapid development of trade, culture, cities began to grow, sciences developed, among them biology and medicine. The first medical schools appear in Europe. The development of anatomy was facilitated by the discovery in Europe in XII-XIV centuries first universities. AT XIV-XV centuries Universities were given the right by special order to dissect one or two human corpses a year for educational purposes.
In 1326 Mondino da Luzzi(1275-1327) published the first textbook on anatomy.
Anatomy, like other sciences, achieved particular success during the Renaissance. Particularly significant contribution to the development of anatomy was made by Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519) and Andreas Vesalius(1514-
The remarkable artist, mathematician, engineer Leonardo da Vinci studied the proportions of the body, for the first time compiled a classification of muscles, made about 800 accurate drawings of bones, muscles, heart and other organs, scientifically described them. These drawings were in various private collections for a long time, and only at the end of the 19th century. became aware of the anatomical work of Leonardo. These drawings have not lost their cognitive significance even today.
A. Vesalius in his work “On the structure of the human body” was the first to describe the systematic anatomy of a person (according to systems - bones, muscles, entrails, etc.), based on his own experience of dissecting corpses. It is no coincidence therefore
A. Vesalius is called the founder of modern systematic anatomy. At that time, anatomy was banned, and A. Vesalius was forced to secretly
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but, with the danger to life, to get corpses, removing them at night from the graves in the cemetery. In his anatomical works, A. Vesalius pointed out the anatomical errors of his predecessors, for which he was persecuted by opponents and ill-wishers. Because of this, he left the University of Padua, where he taught anatomy and surgery, A. Vesalius took the post of court physician.
Pupils and followers of A. Vesalius in the XVI-XVII centuries. many important discoveries were made, and earlier mistakes were corrected. So, G. Fallopius(1523-1562) in "Anatomical Observations" for the first time carefully described the structure of many bones, muscles, organs of hearing, and vision. B. Eustachius(1510-1574) studied the anatomy of teeth, kidneys, veins, the organ of hearing, and was engaged in comparative anatomy. I. Fabricius(1537-1619) studied the structure of the esophagus, larynx, described venous valves. The organs described by them were named after these researchers: fallopian (uterine) tube, Eustachian (auditory) tube, Fabricius bag.
In the XVII-XIX centuries. anatomy was enriched with new facts and discoveries. In 1628 the English scientist W. Harvey(1578-1657) in his book "Anatomical Studies on the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals" proved that blood moves in a vicious circle: through the arteries from the heart, through the veins - to the heart. His works served to form an independent science of the work of organs - physiology.
Thanks to the improvement of the microscope A. van Leeuwenhoek(1632-1723) it became possible to study the microscopic structure of organs and tissues.
In 1661 M. Malpighi(1628-1694), studying the lungs, discovered al
veoli and capillaries, which are the connecting link between the arteries and veins of the lungs. In 1685 G. Bidloo(1649-1713) proved that the nerves are composed of an accumulation of thin nerve fibers. K. M. Baer(1792-1876) discovered the human egg.
In Russia, the first anatomical information can be found already in ancient manuscripts of the 10th-11th centuries. The first medical schools (academies) were opened in our country in the 17th-17th centuries. In 1658 Epiphanius Slavinetsky translated into Russian the works of Vesalius. A great contribution to the development of the science of the structure of the human body was made by the first Russian anatomists. A. P. Protasov(1724-1796) - the author of many Russian anatomical terms, works on the physique of a person, the structure and functions of the stomach. FROM. G. Zybelin(1735-1802) published the book "A word about the composition of the human body and about the ways how to protect it from diseases", in his writings
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The first textbooks on anatomy in Russia appeared at the beginning of the 19th century: a manual P. A. Za Gorsky(1764-1846) "Toward a knowledge of the structure of the human body", "Course of Anatomy" E. O. Mukhina(1766-1850) and
translated M. I. Shein(1712-1762) into Russian work on Geister's anatomy.
The creator of a new branch of science - topographic anatomy, which describes the relative position of the internal organs relative to each other and in relation to the bones of the skeleton, and the doctrine of the location of the main blood vessels and nerve trunks was N. I. Pirogov(1810-1881).
P. F. Lesgaft(1837-1909) - the author of many works on theoretical anatomy, in which he studied the relationship between the functions of organs and their structure.
A major role in the development of anatomy belongs to the professor of Moscow University D. N. Zernov(1843-1917). He studied the individual variability of the sulci and convolutions of the brain, the sense organs, published a textbook on human anatomy, which was reprinted 14 times. Kharkov anatomist V. P. Vorobyov(1876-1937) developed new methods for studying the nerves of the heart, stomach, created a five-volume Atlas of Human Anatomy. Vorobyov invented a new method of embalming, which was used to preserve the body of V. I. Lenin. A well-known anatomist worked in St. Petersburg - Leningrad V. N. Tankov(1872-1954), who studied the roundabout ways of blood flow, the nerves of many organs. He is the author of a famous textbook on human anatomy.
In a small section it is impossible to describe the contribution that scientists have made to the development of knowledge about the structure of the human body.
Of all the sciences that study the human body, we single out the most important ones.
human anatomy(from the Greek "anatomy" - opening, dissection) - the science of the structure of the human body.
human physiology(from the Greek "physis" - nature) - the science of the functions of the human body and its organs.
Hygiene(from the Greek "hygienos" - healthy) - a science that studies the influence of the natural environment, work and life on the human body in order to develop measures to protect health.
