Pedagogy is the science of man.

Pedagogy is a combination of knowledge on training and education, effective ways of transferring accumulated experience and optimal preparation of the younger generations for life and work.

Tasks of pedagogical science

Main task science of education was the accumulation, systematization of scientific knowledge about the education of man.

The main function of pedagogy- to learn the laws of upbringing, education and training of people and, on this basis, indicate to pedagogical practice the best ways and means to achieve the goals set.

Subject of Pedagogy is an educational activity carried out in educational institutions. Pedagogy is considered as an applied science, directing its efforts to the prompt solution of the problems of upbringing, education, and training that arise in society.

The main feature of pedagogical activity is that the object and subject of activity is always a person. Therefore, the profession of a teacher is referred to the "man-man" system.

Pedagogical function- the direction of application of professional knowledge and skills prescribed to the teacher. The main directions of the application of pedagogical efforts are the training, education, development and formation of students. In each of them, the teacher performs many specific actions, so that his functions are often hidden and not always implied explicitly.

The main function of the teacher– process management, development and formation.

System of Pedagogical Sciences

The system of pedagogical science, like any other complex system, can be analyzed according to various criteria, depending on the direction of study and the desire to get answers to certain questions.

• - the foundation of pedagogy, in particular that part of it that specifically deals with the problems of education, called the philosophy of education.
• General Pedagogy- a basic scientific discipline that studies the general patterns of human education, developing the general foundations of the educational process in educational institutions of all types.
• Preschool and school pedagogy- a subsystem of age-related pedagogy.
• Pedagogy high school deals with the pedagogical problems of adults.
• Deaf pedagogy deals with the education and upbringing of the deaf and dumb.
• Tiflopedagogy deals with the education and upbringing of the blind.
• Otgofrenopedagogzha- Mentally retarded.

The pedagogical process and its stages

Pedagogical process - this is the developing interaction of educators and educators, aimed at achieving a given goal and leading to a pre-planned change in state, the transformation of the properties and qualities of educators. Ensuring the unity of education, upbringing and development on the basis of integrity and commonality is the main essence pedagogical process.

Pedagogical processes are cyclical. The same stages can be found in the development of all pedagogical processes. The main stages can be called: preparatory, main, final.

Preparatory stage- appropriate conditions are created for the process to proceed in a given direction and at a given speed.

main stage- the implementation of the pedagogical process - can be considered as a relatively isolated system, which includes important interrelated elements:

• setting and explaining the goals and objectives of the upcoming activities; .
• interaction between teachers and students;
• use of the intended methods, means and forms of the pedagogical process;
• creation of favorable conditions;
• implementation of various measures to stimulate the activities of schoolchildren;

• ensuring the connection of the pedagogical process with other processes.

The final stage- the stage of analysis of the achieved results.

The pedagogical system and its elements

Pedagogical system is a combination of components (parts) that remains stable with changes. If changes (innovations) exceed a certain allowable limit (margin of safety), the system collapses, and a new system with different properties appears in its place.

Professor V.P. Bespalko presents the following interconnected set of variant elements:

• students;
• goals of education (general and partial);
• the content of education;
• upbringing processes (actually upbringing and training);
• teacher (or technical means training);
• organizational forms of educational work.

Important components of the pedagogical system, not reducible to the selected ones, are also:

• results;
• management of the educational process;
• technology.

Brief description of didactics and educational psychology

What does didactics (theory) and educational psychology do? The available textbooks answer this question as follows:

Didactics how science studies the patterns that operate in the field of its subject, analyzes the dependencies that determine the course and results of the learning process, determines the methods, organizational forms and means that ensure the implementation of the planned goals and objectives. Didactics answers the questions: what to teach and how to teach. The modern approach adds: when, where, whom and why to teach;

Studying the patterns of knowledge assimilation and the formation of educational activities, the development of human spheres in the learning process; the subject of this science is also the activity of the teacher and the personality of the teacher in all the variety of characteristics, properties and connections.

As we can see, didactics and educational psychology are united by the main concept - the learning process, the modern definition of which includes both didactic and psychological characteristics (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Scheme of the learning process

Basic concepts of didactics Keywords: learning, teaching, education, goals, methods, means, forms of learning, patterns, principles and rules of learning, control and evaluation. Recently, the following concepts have also entered the theory of learning: pedagogical system, pedagogical concept and technology, pedagogical diagnostics, and management of the learning process.

Basic concepts of educational psychology: teaching, assimilation, patterns of development in the educational process, teacher activities and educational activities, pedagogical communication, pedagogical abilities, professional, psychological and personal qualities of a teacher, professional competence of a teacher.

Consideration of these concepts is the main task study guide. However, already a preliminary acquaintance with the basic concepts suggests how they are related to each other.

Few sciences, both in the past and today, are subject to such widespread public condemnation and accusations of pseudoscience as pedagogy and psychology. This is despite the fact that interest in these disciplines is steadily increasing. The need to solve psychological and pedagogical problems becomes urgent and largely determines the future of mankind.

Tangible changes in the landscape, human living conditions, the development of information technology and the exact sciences, on the one hand, and fragmentary knowledge about human nature, on the other hand. Let's try to figure out: how objective are the accusations of uselessness for modern people against psychology and pedagogy.

What is psychology?

The very word "psychology" consists of two Greek words - "soul" and "knowledge". As a science, psychology arose relatively recently - at the end of the 19th century, until that moment it was part of philosophy.

“Psychology is both a very old and still very young science - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and yet it is still all in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is calculated only for decades, but its main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy has existed. Years of experimental research were preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other,” wrote Russian psychologist S.L. Rubinstein in 1940.

Since its inception, psychology has been studying the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development of mental processes, and also explores the mental states and mental properties of a person.

The subject of psychology from antiquity to the beginning of the 18th century was the soul, then the content of the subject of psychological science depended on its direction.

Thus, the English empirical associationist psychology of D. Hartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer studied the phenomena of consciousness, Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, considered the direct experience of the subject to be the subject of psychology. Functionalists studied adaptability (William James), psychophysiology as the origin of mental activities (Ivan Sechenov), behaviorism - behavior (John Watson), psychoanalysis - the unconscious (Sigmund Freud), Gestalt psychology - information processing processes and the results of these processes (Max Wertheimer), humanistic psychology - personal experience of a person (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May), a system-activity approach in psychology (L. Vygotsky, P. Galperin, D. Elkonin, V. Davydov) is currently relevant in Russian pedagogy the subject of psychology calls activity.

Psychologists use general scientific methods, for example, experiment, observation, questioning, questioning, as well as the actual psychological methods for conducting research, analyzing the data obtained, drawing conclusions.

Modern psychology

Today it is a multi-colored kaleidoscope of various psychological directions, psychological techniques, theories and is divided into different branches: general, age, children's, social, pedagogical, history of psychology, personality theory, etc.

A practicing psychologist independently makes a choice on the basis of which methodology he will work - psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy, cognitive psychology, behavioral approach, Synton method, neurolinguistic programming, etc.

Often a psychologist is forced to make some kind of compilation of several psychological techniques in order to get a visible result of his activity. It should be noted that domestic psychologists are in a more difficult position than Western ones, since the 1936 decree “On pedological perversions in the system of the People’s Commissariat of Education” eliminated pedology, which practically froze the development of psychological science in our country for several decades.

It was only in 1966 that psychology faculties were created at the main universities of the country - Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the department of psychiatry and medical psychology at the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. However, the pressure from the ideology of Marxism-Leninism on psychology remains for a long period. Achievements, like the fallacies of Western psychology, became widespread in our country in the mid-1980s.

Meanwhile, despite the steady growth and accumulation of knowledge, research in various branches of psychology in general, the feeling of a crisis in psychology intensifies in society, since none of the areas of psychology fully and accurately explains the nature of a person, the reasons for his behavior. All this gives reason to doubt the scientific nature of psychology.

Between science and pseudoscience

Psychology is closely connected with natural science, ethnography, sociology, cultural theory, art history, mathematics, logic, and linguistics. Yes, it is so interconnected that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the actual psychology.

In addition, psychological methods are poorly described and studied. The patterns identified by psychologists are not always the same. Many psychological theories are not confirmed in practice. Psychologists work to solve problems, and they should help to avoid them.

This prompts psychologists to look for effective recipes for working with people, for example, in astrology, esotericism, which allows, for example, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. V. Yurevich to conclude: “Psychology occupies an intermediate position between science and parascience ".

A few words about pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated from Greek, means "child-rearing", since in Ancient Greece a teacher was a slave who was assigned to a student.

The need for the emergence of a science that studies the laws of upbringing and education of a person arose as society accumulated knowledge and the need to understand the methods for successfully transferring social experience from generation to generation.

If psychology studies a person, his psyche, then pedagogy is a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with the development of an individual.

How to raise a child, reveal his talents, educate, instill social norms, contribute to the development of personality? What changes occur in the human psyche under the influence of training and education?

Pedagogy is called upon to answer these questions in order to provide an opportunity to foresee and manage the educational process, to understand how to properly develop a personality.

However, by and large, today pedagogical science is not much different from everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, as it consists of disparate facts, theories that have little evidence in practice. more and more reminiscent of quackery in medicine.

social pedagogy

Social pedagogy is a branch of pedagogy that studies how the social environment affects the formation of personality and how best to organize socialization. It is designed to help solve psychological and pedagogical problems in practice, in modern realities. Social pedagogy explores only the field of education carried out by society and the state.

A.V. Mudrik in the textbook "Social pedagogy" writes: "Social pedagogy is a branch of knowledge, having studied which you can learn, firstly, about what will inevitably happen or can happen in the life of a person of a particular age in certain circumstances. Secondly, how can favorable conditions be created for human development, to prevent "failures" in the process of his socialization. And thirdly, how can one reduce the effect of the influence of those unfavorable circumstances in which a person finds himself, the effect of that undesirable thing that happens in the process of socialization of a person.

Social pedagogy and psychology are very close. To check the psychological readiness of a child for school is psychology, but to prepare him for school is already pedagogy.

Thus, it is assumed that the psychologist should only state, explain, recommend, but really influence the behavior of a person, his psyche, this is already the task of the teacher. From this it becomes clear the emergence of psychological and pedagogical faculties and the specialty of a teacher-psychologist.

At the same time, every year there is a growing need not only to provide direct psychological assistance to people, but also to prevent problems and prevent them.

However, again, instead of effective methods, we see general recipes worn to holes:

if you want to solve a problem, know yourself (including your past lives); do not stop in your development - continuous education is waiting for you; don't be a victim - be the author of your life; do not be a consequence - become the cause of everything that happens around you; value life, take care of your health; first love children, and then educate them; your thoughts are your life...

Meaningful invocations. Well, for some reason they don't work. Thinking doesn't change. A lump of social contradictions is growing, hatred, anger, aggressiveness, a decline in morality, and the number of people who do not feel the joy of life is increasing.

Formulas similar to spells - "should", "must", "should" - dissolve in the vacuum of psychological illiteracy, hanging in the air of topical questions about human nature.

System-Vector Psychology

And if you were told that a long-awaited breakthrough had occurred in psychology, would you believe it? No. And rightly so. Because all the provisions of real psychological science do not need to be taken on faith, as well as create special conditions in order to see how it works. Her theory is inseparable from practice. She is life itself.

So, the latest achievement in the world of psychology is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan, which for the first time allows you to accurately differentiate people according to their innate inclinations and reveals the meaning of socialization (introducing a person to culture).

All people are initially born with - vectors that determine the way a person thinks, his life values, desires. Properties are given by nature, but their implementation and development are not predetermined. It depends on the landscape, the society in which a person falls.

Nobody is born a criminal or a genius. Yes, initially each child is different from the other, but how his innate abilities (and they always exist) will be realized and developed is a question for parents, teachers, and society.

System-vector psychology defines: anal, skin, muscle, urethral (lower vectors), oral, olfactory, sound, visual (upper vectors). Each modern person has several vectors, since the landscape is changing, and sometimes contradictory properties are needed to adapt to it.

Accordingly, the more dramatic changes occur in people's living conditions, the more multi-vectored (others are already in starting opportunities than their own parents) children are born.

Today we are clearly seeing children of the "information formation", unlike previous generations. The gap between them and us is enormous. Sharply on the agenda is the question of how to understand a child, how to help him discover his abilities to the fullest and become happy.

Basics of child psychology

Up to a year is simple. He is born with the given basic properties, which he will have to develop before the end of the puberty period (approximately 12-15 years). Then you can only correct all those conditions that "come from childhood."

The main thing that parents of a baby up to a year need to concentrate on is maintaining his life. In this period, the baby eats a lot, grows rapidly and takes the first steps in the knowledge of the world around him. His character is clearly visible, and this must be reckoned with.

For example, a baby who quickly adapts to changes easily endures trips, eats calmly on the road, but an anal toddler, endowed with a rigid psyche, hard tolerating changes, will worry, show anxiety, for him a new environment is stress (even when you change clothes) . By understanding the vector set of their child, parents will be able to provide him with a sense of security necessary for his full development.

The psychology of a child at the age of 2 changes - he begins to walk, the zone of mastering the world expands, in addition, the baby constantly replenishes his vocabulary, shows an active interest in his own body. Individuality, differences from other children appear more and more clearly. So, the skin baby is active in games, loves new games, toys, and the anal baby sits quietly and draws, looks at books for a long time, and shows conservatism in games.

At the age of three, a child often changes unexpectedly - an obedient daughter becomes a stubborn stubborn, "unwanted", does everything in defiance of her parents. The crisis of three years known in psychology is the birth of the "I" of the child, when he begins to separate himself from the world around him, to realize his desires and needs.

This is the first step towards independence. For many parents, the crisis of a child's three years is a test of their parental aptitude. Will they be able to agree, will they learn how to effectively cope with the baby’s tantrums, direct the child’s energy into right direction?

A systematic approach greatly simplifies the life of parents: after the training, they understand what kind of baby is in front of them and what he really wants. freedom must be given, neither prohibitions, nor praise, nor punishment will affect him. It is important to praise the anal peanut for real deeds, adequately limit the skin peanut, build a clear system of prohibitions and rewards.

At the age of three, the most urgent need for children is communication with peers. For the successful socialization of the child, the development of the necessary communication skills in him, it is worth sending him to kindergarten.

It is there, in the children's team, a kind of model of a primitive flock, that he will pass the ranking, find his place in society, the team.

A 4-5-year-old child continues to actively explore the world, begins to ask more and more questions. Some children have obsessive fears - they are afraid of the dark, afraid to be alone. From the point of view of Yuri Burlan's System-Vector Psychology, the state of fear is a manifestation of a visual vector, and until a certain time, the fact that a child is afraid to sleep alone at night is quite normal, this is the archetype of the visual vector, which will develop from fear into love. underlies visual phobias.

It is important for parents to understand what and why is happening to the child in order to adequately respond to his archetypal behavior. For example, it is dangerous for the psyche to drive the viewer into great fear, to fixate him on this state by reading scary tales, where fictional characters eat each other. It is extremely harmful to beat a skinner with a belt for what seems to us to be petty theft, but in his perception he simply took what he needed to hide, make a reserve for a "rainy day", or punish him for swearing.

We subconsciously feel how painful it is to punish the baby: we close the spectator in the closet, we beat the mouthpiece, we shout at the sound engineer, we beat the leather worker, we don’t let him out of the house, we drive the anal man ... And then all these sins of parental upbringing remain anchors in the psyche of adults .

In the psychology of a child of 6-7 years old, the concept of sexuality arises. During this period, children go through primary puberty, so there are very frequent cases when children of this age become victims of pedophiles.

Most children are on their way, a new stage in their social life begins - with new guidelines, authorities, requirements. Parents are faced with the question of how best to help their child adapt to school. Without systemic knowledge, parents and educators act at random. Well, if the properties of parents and children coincide, then they understand each other through themselves. And if not? In this case, the child is faced with double stress, the sources of which are the school and misunderstanding of the parents.

In the psychology of a child at the age of 8, as in child psychology at the age of 9, the development of upper vectors, intellectual abilities, is relevant.

In general, by the puberty period, the child must already go through the ranking of the animal type, where the strong defeat the weak, where relationships are sorted out through fights, and learn to gain authority in the team in a socially acceptable form, determine their niche in society.

Thus, the knowledge accumulated by pedagogy and psychology, social pedagogy, works selectively, from case to case, since they do not distinguish one person from another, they do not have an effective method of working with a person.

Such a technique is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan. This is the microscope through which anyone who looks sees the differences (vectors, their level of development and implementation) of people and is unlikely to teach the "fish" to fly, and this is the basis of any methods of education and training, the foundation for solving urgent social problems through changing the consciousness of a particular member of society to a collective consciousness.

Proofreader: Zifa Akhatova

The article was written based on the materials of the training " System-Vector Psychology»

Since ancient times, people have been trying to master the experience of previous generations, trying to multiply it, enrich it with their own understanding and perception, in order to subsequently pass on their knowledge to the next generations.

Such a desire is characterized by one word - "pedagogy", which means a science that studies the pattern of transmission by the elders and the perception by the younger generation of the social experience necessary for Everyday life and labor.

Psychology and pedagogy are among those sciences that are turned to practice, embedded in the problems of human life and society as a whole, they are looking for answers to the most common problems.

Psychology is the science of the regular development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life, a field of knowledge about the inner world of a person, while pedagogy is a discipline about the education and upbringing of an individual. These two independent sciences have a huge number of related theories and areas of practical purpose, which makes it possible to study them together.

Often, psychology and pedagogy are understood by people as something purely theoretical, consisting of hard-to-perceived links. A large number of scientific publications and manuals are to blame for this, which sometimes contradict each other and further mislead a person regarding these two reliable disciplines.

Psychology and pedagogy make it possible to understand the patterns of development of the human psyche in the most comprehensive way. This makes it possible to find the most effective ways of education and training.

Consider the basics of psychology and pedagogy.

The main goal of pedagogy is to study the patterns and prospects for the development of the process of improving teaching practice. In this discipline, the following areas should be distinguished: the study of the social and personal formation and development of a person in conditions of specially organized education, the definition of the goals and content of the concept of education, the search, as well as scientific confirmation of the methods and forms of organizing educational work.

There is nothing more complicated than the problems of an individual, there is nothing more difficult than to educate a person, to live with him in the same society, to work with him. Incompetent and illiterate actions in this area are unacceptable and dangerous. Where there is no exact knowledge, there is always a guess, and out of ten guesses, nine are usually wrong. It is necessary to approach the solution of human problems especially responsibly.

Special pedagogy and psychology is especially important because it is aimed at studying the processes of regularity, tendencies of management and development of the individuality of a child who has limited opportunities for health reasons. Such children need a specialized approach to education, training and perception of the world around them.

The main goal of this science is the timely identification of all kinds of shortcomings in the development of the personality and the correction of functional disorders of mental activity and behavior. And all this can be revealed by psychology and pedagogy. Every specialist in these fields should be aware of the fact that he has a huge responsibility to a person with limited physical or psychological capabilities.

Trying to help a problem child or an adult, you need to choose purely individual methods of communication separately with each individual, special conditions must be created for receiving an education. These may be certain educational programs, specific teaching methods, all kinds of technical means, medical, psychological and social services designed to help people with handicapped master general educational and professional skills and programs. In a word, psychology is called upon not only to observe the process, but also to help a person form his thinking and an adequate perception of the world.

Educational psychology as a science. The subject of educational psychology.

Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely associated with such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.

The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:

1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development.

2. The combination of age-related patterns and individual characteristics of development and methods of education and upbringing that are optimal for age categories and specific children.

3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche.

4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education.

5. Pedagogical neglect.

6. Ensuring an individual approach to learning.

The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. In fact, the word “training” refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e. the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educated person in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.

Structure and tasks of pedagogical psychology.

Tasks of educational psychology:

1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

2. - determination of the mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by students, its structuring, preservation in the individual mind of the student, its use in different situations;

3. - determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.).

4. - study of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the influence of these processes on their intellectual, personal development;

5. - study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;

6. - determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge;

7. - determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation in accordance with educational standards.

The structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:

1. -psychology of learning;

2. - psychology of education;

3. -psychology of the teacher.

Or more broadly:

1. psychology of educational activity;

2.psychology of educational activity and its subject;

3.psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;

4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.

Experiment(from Latin eexperimental - “trial”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most time-consuming, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Well-known psychologists - experimenters P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of mind approach that has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness, he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.

It is impossible to do without an experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and laboriousness, since only in a carefully thought out, properly organized and conducted experiment can one obtain the most conclusive results, especially those relating to cause-and-effect relationships.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular relationships, i.e. stable, essential, links between phenomena and processes. It is this purpose that distinguishes the experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.

Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and spontaneous ones taken into account.

Scheme of the psychological and pedagogical experiment.

D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:

1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.

2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.

3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.

4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.

There are practically no ideal experiments.

General concept of learning.

Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth).
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development), it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of simple conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.

All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of links between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Varieties of associative learning:

1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.

· sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

· motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions, when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the process of performing a movement.

· sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.

2. Associative Cognitive Learning It is divided into knowledge learning, skill learning and action learning.

· At learning knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.

· Learning skills consists in the formation of an action program that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.

Learning action involves the learning of knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are essential connections, structures and relations of objective reality.
Varieties of intellectual learning:

More complex forms of learning are related to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflex and cognitive.

1. Reflex intellectual learning It is divided into relationship learning, transfer learning and sign learning.

Essence relationship learning consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.

· Transfer Learning lies in the "successful use in relation to the new situation of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses." This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.

· sign learning associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which "the animal reacts to the object as a sign, i.e., responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object means" (Ibid., p. 62).

In an animal, intellectual learning is presented in the simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and proceeds at the cognitive level.

2. Intelligent Cognitive Learning It is divided into learning concepts, learning thinking and learning skills.

· Learning understanding of concepts lies in the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are fixed in words and combinations of words. Through the mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.

· Learning thinking consists in "the formation in students of mental actions and their systems, reflecting the main operations, with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Learning to think is a prerequisite for learning concepts.

. Learning skills is to form in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.

Theories of learning.

T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of evidence available. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have proposed the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as memory habits or processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Second, we often behave in different ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of a habit, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of a response to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes, unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - usually called intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of topics, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcer depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to elicit the given reinforcer. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant formation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of the respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of the behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of the effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. The expectation depended solely on the temporal sequence - or contiguity - of events in environment and not from the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazri considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, coincident events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their component movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was especially thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two of their key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and math. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if we want learning to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the reinforcement probability for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.

Types of learning in humans

1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as a mother duck appears in the field of view of a newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. It - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.

2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.

3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.

4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.

5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning, carried out in a symbolic form through a variety of sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.

The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.

If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.

In this way, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.

Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.

The structure of learning activities.

Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the personality of the child, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.

motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, activities.

Classification of motives for teaching:

Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.

cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).

Emotional: emotional interest.

What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with learning itself, learning, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.

It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that an educational goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that does not affect his soul, is not kept in his mind, is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child's habitual motives.

Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.

learning task- this is what the child must master.

Learning action are changes educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.

Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.

Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts

mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).

To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.

Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.

Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance at classes, leaving the educational institution.

Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.

Methods of influence in education

Consciousness formation method: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, briefing, dispute, report, example. The method of organizing activities and forming the experience of behavior: exercise, accustoming, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Incentive method: competition, reward, punishment.

Pedagogical impact- a special type of teacher's activity, the purpose of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the pupil (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).

The purpose of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three strategies of influence corresponding to them.

First strategy - strategy of imperative influence; its main functions: the function of controlling the behavior and attitudes of a person, their reinforcement and direction in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The second strategy is manipulative - is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge to influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,

Traditionally, in psychological science, two main types of pedagogical influence are distinguished: persuasion and suggestion.

Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness, the will of the child. This is a logically reasoned impact of one person: or a group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.

Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.

38. Methods of self-education and self-education

Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through self-study outside educational institutions and without the help of a tutor.